# From Dispensationalism to Reformed Covenant Theology: A Biblical Pathway *By Adam Malin* *Date: August 9, 2025* [Audio Overview](https://notebooklm.google.com/notebook/1c5b9b70-6acc-4aa9-90b8-2d901733b6d6?artifactId=4250a168-c76a-4df6-b8cc-15cb31015c63) [Video Overview](https://youtu.be/gXp9CkJh07M)   *Gustave Doré, Crucifixion of Jesus (1866).* I understand that shifting from Dispensationalism to Covenant Theology can feel deeply personal and even unsettling. For many, Dispensationalism has provided a clear framework for prophecy, Israel’s role, and end times expectations, often tied to cherished teachers and community. It is not easy to reconsider long-held views, especially when they touch on God’s faithfulness and future hope. Yet many find that exploring Covenant Theology magnifies Christ’s centrality and offers a more unified story of redemption. With empathy for that journey, this paper invites a prayerful examination of the biblical case, honoring Dispensationalism’s strengths while showing how Covenant Theology aligns with the New Testament’s interpretive approach. --- ## TL;DR **Claim.** Covenant Theology, in the Westminster sense, is **one Covenant of Grace** throughout redemptive history, **“differently administered”** under the law (by promises, sacrifices, circumcision, etc.) and under the gospel (in Word and sacraments), all centering on Christ. :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} **Method.** Read the Old Testament through the apostles’ Christ-centered lens: let **shadow → substance** govern (temple, priesthood, sacrifice) and recognize that ceremonial laws are **now abrogated** while the moral law abides. :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1} **Payoff.** The promises to Abraham reach their fulfillment in Christ and His body; the **visible church** under the gospel consists of **professors and their children**; **baptism** admits both believers **and the infants of one or both believing parents**; and we await **one climactic appearing** of Christ—not a return to temple blood. :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2} --- ## 0) Dispensationalism, What I Appreciate (and Where I Have Come to Differ) Before I begin, a word of honor. Many of us learned to love the Bible, long for Christ’s appearing, and evangelize boldly because of Dispensational teachers and churches. That gratitude remains. **Shared strengths we affirm** * A high view of Scripture’s authority and inerrancy. * Careful grammatical-historical exegesis and attention to authorial intent. * Confidence that God keeps His promises; seriousness about prophecy. * Evangelistic urgency and watchful hope for Christ’s return. **A spectrum worth recognizing** Classical → Revised (for example, Charles Ryrie’s *sine qua non*) → Progressive (for example, Craig Blaising and Darrell Bock, **complementary hermeneutics**). This paper interacts most with *progressive* Dispensationalism as the strongest contemporary form. Progressive Dispensationalism affirms a robust **already/not-yet** pattern in which aspects of the Davidic and New Covenants are inaugurated now and consummated later, while still maintaining a future for ethnic Israel; its “complementary hermeneutics” claims the New Testament **adds** but does not **cancel** the Old Testament meaning. I appreciate this rapprochement and yet argue the New Testament’s own use of the Old Testament takes us further, **from shadow to substance in Christ**, in ways that ultimately do not require a future return to temple sacrifices or a separate geopolitical program for Israel. ([tms.edu][1], [galaxie.com][2], [Wikipedia][3]) **Where Covenant Theology overlaps, and where it differs** * **Overlap:** We share grammatical-historical method, original audience context, and progressive revelation. * **Difference:** We follow the New Testament’s **Christ-centered** reading of the Old Testament such that inspired, canonical fulfillment **enlarges** earlier horizons without contradicting them (shadow → substance). This is typology, not free allegory. **Bottom line:** I aim for maximum fairness to Dispensationalism while arguing that the apostolic, Christ-centered reading best explains the whole canon. --- ## 1) How We Read: A Christ-Centered Hermeneutic  *Gustave Doré, The Disciples at Emmaus (1866).* Dispensationalism prioritizes grammatical-historical exegesis, an important strength for objectivity. Progressive Dispensationalism often speaks of **complementary hermeneutics** (Craig Blaising and Darrell Bock): the New Testament adds further, non-contradictory meaning that preserves the Old Testament’s original sense. ([tms.edu][1]) Covenant Theology agrees on context, genre, and authorial intent, but insists on the **apostolic pattern**: the New Testament reads the Old Testament through Jesus Christ, treating Old Testament realities as **types** fulfilled by Him. > *Luke 24:27 (King James Version)*: “And beginning at Moses and all the prophets, he expounded unto them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself.” > > *Hebrews 10:1 (King James Version)*: “For the law having a shadow of good things to come…” **Typology vs. allegory (clear definitions).** * *Typology* recognizes God-designed correspondences from Old Testament persons, institutions, and events (shadows) to their New Testament fulfillments in Jesus Christ (substance). It builds on literal history. * *Allegory*, strictly, reads beyond the text without firm canonical controls; the New Testament authors do **typology**, not free allegory. (Galatians 4:24 uses “allegory” in King James Version for a Spirit-guided, canonical use.) **Criteria we will use when reading Old Testament through the New Testament:** 1. **Explicit New Testament fulfillment or reshape** signals (for example, Acts 2 for Joel 2; Matthew 2:15 using Hosea 11:1; Hebrews 8–10 on priesthood, temple, sacrifice). 2. **Shadow→Substance logic** (Colossians 2:16–17; Hebrews 8:5; 10:1): the greater reality in Jesus Christ reframes the lesser without denying its historicity. 3. **Temple, Land, People re-signification**: Jesus Christ as true temple (John 2:19–21), the Spirit-indwelt people as temple (1 Corinthians 3:16), Abraham’s inheritance expanded (Romans 4:13). **Bottom line:** The New Testament provides the key to the Old Testament, and that key is Jesus Christ. All the promises are “Yes and Amen” in Him (2 Corinthians 1:20). --- ## 2) Exegesis Interpretation > **Exegesis** — from the Greek *exēgēsis* (“to lead out”): the critical, contextual interpretation of a text; contrasts with **eisegesis**. ### 2.1 Acts 1:6–8 — Kingdom Nature and Timing  *Gustave Doré, The Ascension (1866).* > *Acts 1:6,8 (King James Version)*: “Lord, wilt thou at this time restore again the kingdom to Israel?… But ye shall receive power… and ye shall be witnesses unto me… unto the uttermost part of the earth.” * The disciples ask about **timing** and a **national restoration**. Jesus redirects to **mission** and **Spirit-power**. He neither scolds their hope nor affirms a geopolitical program; He reframes kingship as the Spirit-driven advance of the gospel (see also John 18:36; Luke 17:21). * Luke’s narrative shows the kingdom going **outward** (Acts 1:8 → Acts 28), not **backward** to a temple regime. **Bottom line:** Jesus crowns the kingdom’s present, missionary advance rather than mapping a return to sacrificial worship. --- ### 2.2 Romans 11:25–27 — “All Israel” and the Olive Tree > *Romans 11:25–27 (King James Version)*: “Blindness in part is happened to Israel, until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in. And so all Israel shall be saved…” * *Mystērion* = revealed plan: the hardening is partial and temporary. * *Houtōs* (“and so/in this manner”): salvation comes in the **manner** Paul has argued, **grafting by faith** into the one olive tree (Romans 11:17–24), not by ethnicity. * *Romans 11:23 (King James Version)*: “And they also, if they abide not still in unbelief, shall be grafted in.” Future Jewish inclusion is real and welcomed, **by grace through faith in Jesus Christ**, within the one people of God. **Bottom line:** “All Israel” is fulfilled as Jewish people (at any point God pleases) are grafted into the one covenant community by faith, alongside Gentiles, one tree, one Savior. --- ### 2.3 Ezekiel 40–48 and Hebrews 8–10 — The Sacrifice Question  *Gustave Doré, Expulsion of the Merchants from the Temple (1866).* > *Hebrews 10:18 (King James Version)*: “Now where remission of these is, there is no more offering for sin.” * Some Dispensationalists read Ezekiel’s temple literally, with **memorial** sacrifices. Covenant Theology notes that Hebrews insists on Christ’s **once-for-all** sacrifice (Hebrews 10:10,14,18). Even “memorial blood” sits uneasily with the argument that **no** further offerings remain. * Christ Himself instituted the **remembrance** ordinance, bread and wine (Luke 22:19–20; 1 Corinthians 11:23–26). Returning to animal blood, even ceremonially, **functionally undermines** the sufficiency of the cross. * *Ethical coherence:* In the age of renewed creation, must worship involve renewed animal death? Before the cross, animal death **pointed forward** to the Innocent One. After the cross, the **substance** has come. **Bottom line:** Hebrews closes the sacrificial system. The temple and altar language is fulfilled in Jesus Christ and His church, not in a reinstated blood economy. --- ### 2.4 Daniel 9:24–27 — A Brief Word  *Gustave Doré, Daniel in the Lions’ Den (1868).* * Covenant Theology readings see the seventy weeks climaxing in Messiah’s work, with the “decreed end” falling on the desolator without requiring an isolated, future seventieth week after a long gap. * However one reads the details, Covenant Theology does **not** require a rebuilt sacrificial system to make sense of New Testament eschatology. **Bottom line:** The center of Daniel’s timeline is Christ’s atoning work, not a future return to temple sacrifices. --- ## 3) One People of God: Grafted into One Olive Tree  *Gustave Doré, The Good Samaritan (1880).* > “**Now therefore ye are no more strangers and foreigners, but fellowcitizens with the saints, and of the household of God.**” (Ephesians 2:19, KJV) > “**But ye are a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, an holy nation, a peculiar people… Which in time past were not a people, but are now the people of God.**” (1 Peter 2:9–10, KJV) **One church, many nations.** In Christ, Jew and Gentile are made **one new man** and gathered into a single “household of God” (Eph. 2:11–22). Peter even applies Israel’s covenant titles to the multi-ethnic church (1 Pet. 2:9–10). This matches the Westminster Confession’s teaching that Christ has one catholic (universal) church under Him as Head. > “**And if some of the branches be broken off… thou, being a wild olive tree, wert graffed in among them…**” (Romans 11:17; cf. vv. 18–24, 26–27, KJV) **Olive-tree logic.** Paul pictures **one root, one tree**: unbelieving branches are cut off; believing Jews and Gentiles are grafted in by faith. Future Jewish mercy comes this same way—through union with the Redeemer—not by a separate redemptive track. **The visible church (Westminster).** According to the Confession, the visible church **“consists of all those throughout the world that profess the true religion, together with their children.”** This summarizes how God ordinarily marks out His people in history. > “**For the promise is unto you, and to your children, and to all that are afar off, even as many as the Lord our God shall call.**” (Acts 2:39, KJV) ([Bible Gateway][1]) **Membership and signs.** Because God gathers a visible people by profession **and their children**, baptism is to be administered to believers **and to the infants of one or both believing parents** (WCF 28; WLC 166). The Supper then nourishes baptized communicants who “examine” themselves (1 Cor. 11:28). **Bottom line.** Scripture and the Westminster standards speak with one voice: **one Redeemer, one olive tree, one household**—a visible church made up of professors and their children, gathered from every nation, with salvation received the same way for all: **by grace through faith in Jesus Christ**. --- [1]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+2%3A31-39&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Acts 2:31-39 KJV - He seeing this before spake of the - Bible Gateway" ## 4) Covenants: One Covenant of Grace—Administered Under Law and Gospel > *“And if ye be Christ’s, then are ye Abraham’s seed, and heirs according to the promise.”* (Galatians 3:29, KJV) **Definition (Westminster).** Scripture reveals **one** Covenant of Grace through all ages, **“differently administered”** before and after Christ’s coming. Under the **law** it was administered by promises, prophecies, sacrifices, circumcision, the Passover, and other ordinances—**all foreshadowing Christ** and, by the Spirit, truly edifying the elect; under the **gospel** it is administered with greater simplicity and fullness in Word and sacraments. ([creeds.net][1]) **Abrahamic covenant: promise administered.** God’s covenant with Abraham included real **temporal/national** gifts (people and land) and, centrally, the **Christological** promise focused on the singular Seed, Christ. In Westminster terms, this Abrahamic administration was a **true administration of the Covenant of Grace**: saving grace was held forth in shadow and type, securing the same inheritance ultimately realized in Christ. ([creeds.net][1]) **Mosaic covenant: typological administration—ceremonies abrogated, moral law abiding.** Sinai ordered Israel “as a church under age.” Its priesthood and sacrificial ordinances **prefigured** Christ and are now **abrogated**; the **judicial** laws expired except for their **general equity**; the **moral law** binds all people forever. ([ReformedWiki][2], [creeds.net][3]) **New Covenant: clearer, fuller administration—and who belongs.** In Christ’s blood the same gracious covenant is **ratified** with clarity and power. The **visible church** under the gospel consists of **all who profess the true religion, and their children**. **Baptism** admits into that visible church and is to be administered to **professors of faith and to the infants of one or both believing parents**. The **Lord’s Supper** is for baptized communicants who can **examine themselves** and, as **worthy receivers**, truly feed upon Christ by faith. ([Everything2][4], [The Highway][5], [The Westminster Standard][6], [covref.org][7]) **Land, temple, inheritance.** The land promise was **kept historically** and is **enlarged** in Christ to a worldwide inheritance; the **temple** is fulfilled in **Christ and His church**; the **sacrificial** system is finished at the cross—**no more offering for sin**. This is classic Westminster: **shadows fulfilled, ceremonies abrogated**. ([ReformedWiki][2]) **Bottom line (Westminster).** **One gracious covenant, many administrations.** The Old Testament truly **administered** saving grace in shadow; the New Testament administers it in fullness. The visible church includes believers **and their children**; **baptism** admits to that church; and the **Supper** nourishes the baptized who discern the Lord’s body. ([creeds.net][1], [Everything2][4], [The Highway][5]) --- [1]: https://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/c07.htm?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Westminster Confession - Of God's Covenant with Man - Chapt 7 - Creeds" [2]: https://reformedwiki.com/confessions/westminster/19?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Chapter 19) Of the Law of God - Westminster Confession of Faith" [3]: https://www.creeds.net/Westminster/c19.htm?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Westminster Confession - Of the Law of God - Chapt 19 - Creeds" [4]: https://everything2.com/title/Westminster%2BConfession%2Bof%2BFaith%2B-%2BChapter%2B25?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Westminster Confession of Faith - Chapter 25 - Everything2.com" [5]: https://www.the-highway.com/WCFChXXVIII.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Westminster Confession of Faith Chapter XXVIII - Of Baptism" [6]: https://thewestminsterstandard.org/westminster-larger-catechism/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Larger Catechism - The Westminster Standard" [7]: https://www.covref.org/confessions/westminster-confession.htm?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Westminster Confession of Faith" ## 5) Kingdom and Mission: The Now of Jesus’ Reign  *Gustave Doré, Paul Preaching to the Thessalonians.* > “**Who hath delivered us from the power of darkness, and hath translated us into the kingdom of his dear Son.**” (Colossians 1:13, KJV) :contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0} > “**My kingdom is not of this world… but now is my kingdom not from hence.**” (John 18:36, KJV) :contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1} > “**But ye are come unto mount Sion… the heavenly Jerusalem… and to Jesus the mediator of the new covenant.**” (Hebrews 12:22–24, KJV) :contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2} **Kingdom now, mission now.** Christ’s reign is present and heavenly in source; He advances it by His Spirit through the church’s witness “unto the uttermost part of the earth.” (Acts 1:8, KJV) :contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3} The Westminster Confession says Christ has given to His church “the ministry, oracles, and ordinances of God, for the gathering and perfecting of the saints… unto the end of the world.” (WCF 25.3) :contentReference[oaicite:4]{index=4} **Word, sacraments, prayer—according to God’s rule.** Worship is only as God appoints; we are not to invent or add to His ordinances (the **regulative principle**). (WCF 21.1) :contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5} Under the gospel this ministry is carried on with “more simplicity, and less outward glory,” yet with greater efficacy, by Word and sacraments. (WCF 25.3) :contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6} **Law and Lord’s Day.** The **moral law** abides as a rule of life; the **ceremonial laws** are “now abrogated,” and the **judicial laws** expired, except for their general equity. (WCF 19.3–5) :contentReference[oaicite:7]{index=7} The Sabbath command stands morally, and by Christ’s resurrection the day has been changed to the **first day of the week**, the **Lord’s Day**, to be kept holy in public and private worship “till the end of the world.” (WCF 21.7–8; cf. Revelation 1:10, KJV) :contentReference[oaicite:8]{index=8} **Bottom line.** Christ **reigns now**; His church carries the gospel to the nations by the means He ordained, worships as He commands, delights in His Day, and walks by His moral law—**until He returns** in glory. --- ## 6) Eschatology: Clarity with Charity  *Gustave Doré, The New Jerusalem (1865).* > “**But, beloved, be not ignorant of this one thing, that one day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day.**” (2 Peter 3:8, KJV) ([Bible Gateway][1]) > “**For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout… and the dead in Christ shall rise first: Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up…**” (1 Thessalonians 4:16–17, KJV) ([Bible Gateway][2]) > “**But of that day and hour knoweth no man…**” (Matthew 24:36–44, KJV) ([Bible Gateway][3]) We confess **one** climactic appearing of Christ, with a **general resurrection** and **last judgment**. Westminster summarizes: the righteous and wicked shall be raised (**WCF 32**) and “God hath appointed a day, wherein he will judge the world, in righteousness, by Jesus Christ” (**WCF 33**). ([A Puritan's Mind][4]) **Amillennial frame.** Reading apocalyptic numbers symbolically, the Church has long understood the “thousand years” as the **present** gospel age of Christ’s reign, to be consummated at His return (no interposed earthly kingdom required). Augustine’s *City of God* shaped this mainstream reading; accessible overviews trace the line from Augustine through the Reformation. This amillennial framing is compatible with Westminster, though not mandated by it. ([Internet Archive][5]) **Watchfulness, not date-setting.** Because the day is unknown, Scripture binds us to sobriety, prayer, and mission—never speculation. (Matthew 24:36–44; 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17.) ([Bible Gateway][3]) --- ### 6.1 The Rapture: One Appearing, Not Two > “**…the dead in Christ shall rise first: Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air…**” (1 Thessalonians 4:16–17, KJV) ([Bible Gateway][2]) We gladly affirm the **rapture**—the catching up of the saints—but as part of **one** public, royal **appearing** of Christ, not a separate secret event. The New Testament’s “meeting” imagery coheres with texts where people go out to meet a coming king and accompany him (cf. Matthew 25:6; Acts 28:15). ([Bible Gateway][6]) **About Revelation 3:10.** Pre-tribulational writers take “**I… will keep thee from** the hour of temptation” to imply removal (*tēreō ek*), while others note John 17:15 uses the same construction for **guarding in** the midst of evil (“keep them from the evil”). The grammar therefore does not require a two-stage return; Revelation’s pastoral thrust is **perseverance**. ([Bible Gateway][2]) **Confessional fit.** This single-appearing, single-judgment pattern accords with **WCF 32–33**: one resurrection, one last day, one public judgment by the Lord Jesus. ([A Puritan's Mind][4]) **Bottom line.** Christ reigns **now** and will **visibly** return once to raise, judge, and renew. Our task is steadfast faith and witness until that day. (Colossians 1:13; 1 Thessalonians 4:16–17.) ([Bible Gateway][7]) --- [1]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Colossians+1%3A13&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Bible Gateway passage: Colossians 1:13 - King James Version" [2]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Thessalonians+4%3A16-17&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "1 Thessalonians 4:16-17 KJV - BibleGateway.com" [3]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+24%3A36-44&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Matthew 24:36-44 KJV - But of that day and hour knoweth no - Bible Gateway" [4]: https://www.apuritansmind.com/westminster-standards/chapter-32 "Chapter 32: Of the State of Men after Death, and of the Resurrection of the Dead | Reformed Theology at A Puritan's Mind" [5]: https://archive.org/details/st.-augustine-the-city-of-god?utm_source=chatgpt.com "The City of God by St. Augustine - Archive.org" [6]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+25%3A6&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 25:6 - King James Version" [7]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+28%3A15&version=NIV%3BKJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Acts 28:15 NIV;KJV - The brothers and sisters there had - Bible Gateway" --- ### 6.2 The Millennium: Christ’s Present Reign Revelation 20’s “thousand years” is symbolic for the church age, Christ’s present reign from His ascension until His return. Numbers in apocalyptic literature often symbolize completeness rather than literal counts (see Psalm 50:10). During this period, Satan is bound from deceiving the nations (missionary expansion), saints reign with Christ in heaven, and the gospel spreads to all peoples. > **Mainstream status.** This symbolic-present-reign reading has deep roots from Augustine forward and remains a major view in historic Christian theology. ([Affinity][4], [Christian History Institute][5]) **Bottom line:** We live in the “millennium” now. The final judgment and resurrection occur when Christ returns, no earthly reign “gap” is needed. --- ### 6.3 Israel in the Last Days: Fulfilled and Enlarged Dispensationalism often expects a future earthly kingdom centered on national Israel, with a rebuilt temple and renewed sacrifices. Covenant Theology affirms God’s irrevocable call (Romans 11:29), but understands the promises as **fulfilled in Christ** and extended to all who believe, Jewish or Gentile (Ephesians 2:11–22). The “salvation of all Israel” (Romans 11:26) happens through faith in Messiah, as Jews are grafted back into the one olive tree. The temple is now Christ (John 2:19–21) and His people (1 Corinthians 3:16). Hebrews 10 leaves no room for a return to animal blood, even as memorial, because the once-for-all sacrifice is complete. > **Important Note:** This argument **explicitly rejects** any form of antisemitism. I pray for and welcome Jewish faith in Jesus as Messiah and honor the Jewish roots of the gospel (Romans 1:16; 11:18–24). **Bottom line:** God’s promises to Israel are not abandoned, they are gloriously kept in Christ, the true Seed of Abraham, and shared with all who are His. --- ### 6.4 The Modern State of Israel: Providence, Not Prophetic Fulfillment > *Ezekiel 36:24–28 (King James Version)*: “For I will take you from among the heathen, and gather you out of all countries, and will bring you into your own land. Then will I sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean… A new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within you…” Dispensationalism often points to the 1948 establishment of modern Israel, and its subsequent survival, as a literal fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies like the “dry bones” vision (Ezekiel 37:1–14), a second regathering (Isaiah 11:11–12), or an unbreakable planting in the land (Amos 9:14–15). This is seen as evidence of God’s distinct program for ethnic Israel, signaling the nearness of end-times events. Covenant Theology appreciates God’s providential hand in history, including the return of Jewish people to their ancestral land after centuries of diaspora and suffering. Yet we argue that these events, while remarkable, do not constitute the biblical fulfillment of restoration promises. Scripture ties regathering inextricably to **spiritual renewal through the Messiah**, a heart transformation under the New Covenant, not a geopolitical return in unbelief. * **Contextual unity in Ezekiel 36–37**: The physical regathering (Ezekiel 36:24; 37:21) is followed immediately by spiritual cleansing, a new heart, and the indwelling Spirit (Ezekiel 36:25–27), echoing Jeremiah 31:31–34. This is fulfilled in Christ’s atonement and Pentecost (Acts 2:16–21, 38–39; Hebrews 8:8–12), where Jews and Gentiles receive new life by faith. * **New Testament reframing**: The apostles apply restoration language to the church’s ingathering (Acts 15:14–18, citing Amos 9:11–12 as fulfilled in the Gentile mission; Romans 9:24–26, applying Hosea 1–2 to believers). True Israel is defined by promise and faith, not ethnicity (Romans 9:6–8; Galatians 6:15–16). * **Enlargement to the new creation**: Promises of land and security (Deuteronomy 30:1–5; Amos 9:15) were historically fulfilled under Joshua (Joshua 21:43–45) and are eschatologically expanded in Christ to a “better country” (Hebrews 11:13–16), the renewed heavens and earth (Revelation 21:1–4), not a modern nation-state. * **Caution against headline exegesis**: While 1948 may reflect God’s common grace and care for the Jewish people (Romans 11:28–29), tying it to prophecy risks misinterpretation, as the modern state remains largely secular and without Messianic recognition (contrast Zechariah 12:10). Future Jewish inclusion comes by faith in Christ (Romans 11:23), within the one people of God. **Bottom line:** Old Testament regathering prophecies find their substance in Christ’s spiritual restoration of believers, Jewish and Gentile, into His kingdom, not in a physical return apart from faith. God’s providence in history magnifies His faithfulness, but fulfillment remains Christ-centered. --- ## 7) What This Paper Is **Not** Claiming * That Jewish people are “replaced.” I affirm future Jewish inclusion **by faith** within the one olive tree. * That the Old Testament meant nothing to its first hearers. I affirm original context and then **apostolic expansion** in Christ. * That genre or prophecy is never literal. I affirm literal history with canonical **typological fulfillment**. * That imminency is meaningless without a pre-tribulation rapture. I affirm biblical watchfulness because the day is unknown. --- ## 8) Quick FAQ / Objections **Q: Does Covenant Theology erase ethnic promises?** **A:** No. In the Westminster frame there is **one** Covenant of Grace through all ages, administered under law and gospel; the promises are **kept and enlarged in Christ** and shared with all who believe, Jew and Gentile (Rom 11; Eph 2). WCF 7 says the covenant was truly present under the law by promises, sacrifices, and types, and now under the gospel in greater clarity and power. ([The Pre-Trib Research Center][1]) **Q: Isn’t “Israel of God” (Galatians 6:16) debated?** **A:** Yes. So we center unity on the **clear** one-people images: one olive tree (Rom 11), one household/temple (Eph 2), and the church bearing covenant titles (1 Pet 2). That’s fully consonant with WCF’s single gracious covenant across the canon. ([The Pre-Trib Research Center][1]) **Q: Are Abraham and Moses “administrations of the Covenant of Grace”?** **A:** **Yes** (Westminster). Under the law the covenant was administered by “promises, prophecies, sacrifices, circumcision, the paschal lamb, and other types and ordinances” that foreshadowed Christ and **really conveyed** grace by the Spirit to the elect; under the gospel the same covenant is administered with greater simplicity and fullness. ([The Pre-Trib Research Center][1]) **Q: Why baptize only professing believers?** **A:** In the Westminster view we **don’t** limit baptism to professing adults. The visible church consists of all who profess the true religion **and their children** (WCF 25.2). Therefore baptism is administered to believers **and** to the infants of one or both believing parents (WCF 28.4–6; Acts 2:39 as a standard proof). ([Bible Gateway][2], [ZLibrary][3]) **Q: Do you deny a kingdom for Israel?** **A:** No. Christ **is** Israel’s King; His kingdom is present now and will be consummated at His appearing. What Westminster denies is any return to abrogated ceremonies (temple blood, etc.), since the old administration’s types are fulfilled and **ceased** in Christ (WCF 7; 19; 27–29; see Heb 8–10). ([The Pre-Trib Research Center][1]) **Q: Is Covenant Theology anti-literal?** **A:** No. It’s historically literal **and** canonically governed: real history → real fulfillment in Christ, with shadows giving way to substance. That is exactly the Confession’s “differently administered” covenantal logic. ([The Pre-Trib Research Center][1]) **Q: What about Revelation 3:10—does “keep from” (*tēreō ek*) prove a pre-trib rapture?** **A:** Not necessarily. The same construction appears in **John 17:15** (“keep them from the evil \[one]”), where it clearly means **guard in the midst of**, not remove out of. Classical commentators flag the parallel, and it’s often noted in Greek discussion of Rev 3:10. This text doesn’t require two distinct “second comings.” ([StudyLight.org][4]) **Q: What about “not appointed to wrath” (1 Thessalonians 5:9)?** **A:** In context (1 Thess 5:1–11) “wrath” contrasts with **final judgment** at the Day of the Lord; the passage exhorts sober hope, not a timetable for a two-stage return. ([Christianity Path][5]) **Q: Who is the “restrainer” in 2 Thessalonians 2?** **A:** It’s debated. Serious proposals include the Holy Spirit, civil authority, an angelic agent (e.g., **Michael**), the proclaimed word, or God’s decree. A Cambridge monograph defends the “Michael” view; the broader scholarly discussion acknowledges no consensus—so it’s a weak pillar for constructing a pre-trib schema. ([Last Days Mystery][6], [BibliaPlus][7]) **Q: Do you call memorial sacrifices heresy?** **A:** We keep irenic language in the main text, but the theology matters: Hebrews concludes that, where remission is given through Christ, there is **“no more offering for sin.”** Memorial blood sits poorly with that finality. (See Heb 10:1–18, esp. 10:10, 14, 18.) ([Bible Gateway][8]) [1]: https://www.pre-trib.org/pretribfiles/pdfs/Ice-KeptFromTheHour.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com "KEPT FROM THE HOUR - Pre-Trib" [2]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+3%3A10&version=NET&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Revelation 3:10 NET - Because you have kept my admonition to - Bible ..." [3]: https://en.zlibrary.to/dl/the-westminster-confession-of-faith-with-scripture-proofs?utm_source=chatgpt.com "The Westminster Confession of Faith, with Scripture proofs PDF" [4]: https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/egt/john-17.html "John 17 - The Expositor's Greek Testament - Bible Commentaries - StudyLight.org" [5]: https://christianitypath.com/john-17-15/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "John 17:15 Meaning & Explanation (with Related Verses)" [6]: https://www.lastdaysmystery.info/i_will_keep_you_from.htm?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Last Days Mystery - I Will Keep You From" [7]: https://www.bibliaplus.org/en/commentaries/236/cambridge-greek-testament-for-schools-and-colleges-commentary/john/17/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "John 17 - Cambridge Greek Testament Commentary - Bíblia Plus" [8]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+10%3A1-18&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Bible Gateway passage: Hebrews 10:1-18 - King James Version" --- ## 9) A Note on History * **Dispensationalism** as a full system was articulated in the nineteenth century; earlier Christians held various premillennial expectations, but not the modern Dispensational framework in full. * **Covenant Theology** is a seventeenth-century systematization of strands long present in Christian reflection: one redemptive storyline culminating in Christ. * Early witnesses to a robust Christ-centered reading include **Irenaeus** (*Against Heresies* 5.32–36), **Justin Martyr** (*Dialogue with Trypho* 80–81), and the Papias tradition reported by **Eusebius** (*Ecclesiastical History* 3.39). I cite them to show **trajectory**, not to elevate them over Scripture. *(Some fundamentalist readers do not weigh patristic evidence highly. That is fine, the case here stands on exegesis.)* --- ## 10) Voices from the Journey *Personal stories can relieve the isolation some feel when reconsidering long-held views. These brief summaries are anecdotal; Scripture remains the final authority.* * **John P. Davis, Th.M. (Westminster):** While researching the Abrahamic covenant, he concluded that the promise flowers in Christ and unites one people by faith (Galatians 3:7–9). Gracious mentors pressed him to read Old Testament promises in light of the apostolic use of the Old Testament. * **Pastor formed by Master’s-style Dispensationalism:** After a 2017 Ligonier round-table and a close reading of 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18, he embraced a historic, single-coming view and eventually ministered under the 1689 confession. * **“TryingToLearn” (lay reader):** After G. K. Beale and a fresh look at Romans 11, he came to see promises to ethnic Israel fulfilled in Christ and shared within the one olive tree. **Bottom line:** Many who move toward Covenant Theology testify less to abandoning Scripture and more to *seeing it with apostolic lenses*, Christ at the center. --- ## 11) Conclusion: An Invitation to Continue the Journey Covenant Theology seeks to let the New Testament teach us how to read the Old Testament. If the case here holds, then in Christ the shadows have found their substance: **one people by faith, one covenantal storyline of grace, one blessed hope.** If you are processing these things: * Read the passages in the **Biblical Verses Pathway** with a friend or elder. * Bring your best objections; test everything by Scripture (Acts 17:11). * Ask the Lord for wisdom and unity in your local church. *“Even so, come, Lord Jesus.”* (Revelation 22:20) --- ## 12) Appendix: Biblical Verses Pathway *A guided sequence of passages, organized thematically to demonstrate Covenant Theology. Use the questions to spark reflection or group discussion.* ### 1. Christ-Centered Hermeneutics (See Luke 24:25–27; Acts 2:14–21; Galatians 4:21–31; 2 Corinthians 1:19–20; Hosea 11:1 with Matthew 2:15.) **Question:** How do the apostles treat Old Testament texts, as prediction, typology, or both, and what does that say about their hermeneutic? ### 2. Unity of God’s People (See Galatians 6:14–16; Romans 11:16–24; Ephesians 2:11–22; 1 Peter 2:9–10.) **Question:** What word-pictures (olive tree, new temple, royal priesthood) communicate a single people of God? ### 3. Covenant Continuity (See Galatians 3:15–29; Romans 4:9–16; Jeremiah 31:31–34; Hebrews 8:6–13; Joshua 21:43–45; 1 Kings 4:20–21; 1 Kings 8:54–56; Nehemiah 9:7–8; Hebrews 11:8–16; Genesis 3:15; Matthew 23:37–39.) Question: How does Scripture portray earlier promises as fulfilled yet simultaneously enlarged in Christ? #### Assurances of Fulfilled Promises to Abraham These passages explicitly affirm that God kept all His promises to Abraham and Israel historically, providing rest, land possession, and prosperity under leaders like Joshua and Solomon—while setting the stage for ultimate enlargement in Christ: - *Joshua 21:43–45 (King James Version)*: “And the Lord gave unto Israel all the land which he sware to give unto their fathers; and they possessed it, and dwelt therein. And the Lord gave them rest round about, according to all that he sware unto their fathers: and there stood not a man of all their enemies before them; the Lord delivered all their enemies into their hand. There failed not ought of any good thing which the Lord had spoken unto the house of Israel; all came to pass.” (Emphasizes complete land fulfillment and no failed promises.) - *Joshua 23:14 (King James Version)*: “And, behold, this day I am going the way of all the earth: and ye know in all your hearts and in all your souls, that not one thing hath failed of all the good things which the Lord your God spake concerning you; all are come to pass unto you, and not one thing hath failed thereof.” (Joshua's farewell reinforces total fulfillment.) - *1 Kings 4:20–21,24 (King James Version)*: “Judah and Israel were many, as the sand which is by the sea in multitude, eating and drinking, and making merry. And Solomon reigned over all kingdoms from the river unto the land of the Philistines, and unto the border of Egypt: they brought presents, and served Solomon all the days of his life... For he had dominion over all the region on this side the river, from Tiphsah even to Azzah, over all the kings on this side the river: and he had peace on all sides round about him.” (Describes Solomon's rule over the full promised boundaries with peace and prosperity.) - *1 Kings 8:56 (King James Version)*: “Blessed be the Lord, that hath given rest unto his people Israel, according to all that he promised: there hath not failed one word of all his good promise, which he promised by the hand of Moses his servant.” (Solomon affirms no unkept words, tying back to Abrahamic roots via Moses.) - *Nehemiah 9:7–8 (King James Version)*: “Thou art the Lord the God, who didst choose Abram... and madest a covenant with him to give the land... to his seed, and hast performed thy words; for thou art righteous.” (Directly states God performed/fulfilled the Abrahamic land covenant.) **Reflection:** These assurances show God's faithfulness in history (e.g., land from Egypt to Euphrates under Solomon), yet the New Testament enlarges them to a global inheritance through Christ (Romans 4:13; Hebrews 11:13–16), not requiring a future geopolitical replay. ### 4. Kingdom Fulfillment (See Acts 1:4–8; John 18:33–37; Luke 17:20–21; Acts 28:23–31; Acts 2:14–21.) **Question:** In what sense is the kingdom “already” present and how does that shape mission? ### 5. Salvation of “All Israel” (See Romans 9:4–8; Romans 11:23–27; Isaiah 59:20–21; Zechariah 12:10–14.) **Question:** How does Paul define “Israel” within Romans 9–11, and what future hope remains for ethnic Jewish people? ### 6. Prophetic Typology (See Hebrews 8:1–5; Hebrews 10:1–14; Revelation 21:22–27; Zechariah 14:8–9; John 7:37–39; Haggai 2:6–9; Hebrews 12:25–28; Isaiah 2:2–4.) **Question:** Which temple-and-city images are literal, which are symbolic, and how does the New Testament signal the shift? ### 7. Eschatological Hope (See Matthew 25:31–46; 1 Thessalonians 4:13–18; Revelation 20:1–6; Daniel 9:24–27; 2 Peter 3:8; Colossians 1:13; John 14:3; 1 Thessalonians 5:1–11.) **Question:** How do these passages balance imminent expectation with “already/not-yet” realities? *Progression tip:* Work through the seven themes in order; each builds on the previous to form a cohesive biblical-theological argument. --- ## 13) Appendix: Daniel 9:24–27 — A Mini-Guide to the Debates To help readers see why Covenant Theology centers this prophecy on Christ without requiring a future temple-sacrifice regime, here are the main questions and options (with representative resources): 1. **What is the overall scope?** *Messianic fulfillment now* (many Reformed and amillennial readers) vs. *primarily future national-Israel program* (classic Dispensationalism). For a concise Reformed treatment, see Meredith G. Kline’s “The Covenant of the Seventieth Week.” ([Meredith G. Kline Resource Site][12]) 2. **Is there a “gap” between the sixty-ninth and seventieth week?** *No gap* (continuous, climaxing in Messiah’s ministry and the destruction of Jerusalem) vs. *yes, a long inter-advent gap before a future seventieth week* (a key Dispensational distinctive). For a Dispensational defense of the gap, see the Council on Dispensational Hermeneutics paper; for multi-view comparisons, see Hugenberger’s overview and City Reformed’s four-views chart. ([Council on Dispensational Hermeneutics][13], [parkstreet.org][14], [City Reformed Presbyterian Church][15]) 3. **Who is the “he” who confirms a covenant (verse 27)?** *Messiah confirming the New Covenant with “the many”* (e.g., link to the Lord’s Supper language) vs. *a future antichrist making a treaty*. See Kline for the New Covenant reading. ([Meredith G. Kline Resource Site][12]) 4. **How do the New Testament writers lean?** The New Testament consistently centers fulfillment language on Jesus Christ’s once-for-all atonement and the New Covenant (Hebrews 8–10), which weighs against any necessity for renewed temple blood. (Cross-reference Hebrews 10 above.) 5. **So what?** However you parse some details, Daniel 9 **does not require** a reinstated sacrificial system; the New Testament’s hermeneutic resolves the shadows in Christ. --- ## 14) New Covenant Membership & Baptism The **visible church** under the gospel is “**all those throughout the world that profess the true religion, together with their children**.” (WCF 25.2). This is one and the same **Covenant of Grace**, now administered with greater clarity and fullness in Word and sacraments. ### Who belongs to the visible church? > “**Now therefore ye are no more strangers and foreigners, but fellowcitizens with the saints, and of the household of God.**” (Eph 2:19, KJV) In Westminster’s language, the visible church includes **professors** of the true faith **and their children** (WCF 25.2). This reflects the covenant pattern from Abraham onward (“**I will establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee…**” Gen 17:7, KJV), carried into the New Covenant promise: “**For the promise is unto you, and to your children, and to all that are afar off, even as many as the Lord our God shall call.**” (Acts 2:39, KJV). ### Baptism: the sacrament of admission Baptism is **ordained by Christ** as a sign and seal of the Covenant of Grace and of our ingrafting into Him (WCF 28.1). It is to be administered **with water, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost** (WCF 28.2; Matt 28:19, KJV). ([Blue Letter Bible][1]) **To whom is baptism to be administered?** Westminster teaches it is for **professors of the faith** and also for the **infants of one or both believing parents** (WCF 28.4; WLC 166). Scripture grounds this in the covenant with Abraham (Gen 17:7), the continuity of the covenant sign (Col 2:11–12), the New-Covenant promise to believers **and their children** (Acts 2:39), and the **federal holiness** of believers’ children (1 Cor 7:14). “**For the unbelieving husband is sanctified by the wife… else were your children unclean; but now are they holy.**” (KJV). ([Reformed Forum][2]) > “**Buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye are risen with him through the faith of the operation of God…**” (Col 2:12, KJV). ### The Lord’s Supper: nourishment for the baptized who discern The Supper is for **baptized** communicants who can **examine themselves**; it is **not** to be administered to infants (WCF 29.7–8; cf. 1 Cor 11:28–29, KJV: “**let a man examine himself**”). ([YouVersion | The Bible App | Bible.com][3], [Bible Gateway][4]) ### Pastoral implications * **Receive** into the visible church: professors of faith **and their children** (WCF 25.2). * **Baptize**: professors and the **infants** of at least one believing parent (WCF 28.4; WLC 166). * **Fence the Table**: invite the **baptized who can examine themselves**; catechize covenant children toward personal profession and admission. (WCF 29.7–8; 1 Cor 11:28–29 KJV). ([YouVersion | The Bible App | Bible.com][3], [Bible Gateway][4]) **Bottom line (Westminster):** One gracious covenant, now administered in gospel clarity. The visible church embraces **believers and their children**; **baptism** marks entry; the **Supper** nourishes the baptized who **discern the Lord’s body**. ([YouVersion | The Bible App | Bible.com][3]) --- [1]: https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/Mat/28/19/s_957019?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Matthew 28 (KJV) - Go ye therefore, and teach - Blue Letter Bible" [2]: https://reformedforum.org/podcasts/larger-catechism-questions-161-170/?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Larger Catechism: Questions 161-170 - Reformed Forum" [3]: https://www.bible.com/bible/1/GEN.17.7.kjv?utm_source=chatgpt.com "Genesis 17:7 - Bible.com" [4]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+corinthians+11%3A28-29&version=NKJV%3BNIV%3BKJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "1 corinthians 11:28-29 NKJV;NIV;KJV - But let a man examine himself ..." ## Footnotes (revised) 1. **Fulfillment, not replacement.** Covenant Theology claims that Israel’s promises are fulfilled in Christ and shared by believing Jews and Gentiles (Ephesians 2:12–19; Romans 11:17–24). The term “replacement” misrepresents the view; **continuity and enlargement** better capture the classic Reformed claim. 2. **On memorial sacrifices.** Hebrews’ argument hinges on the finality of Christ’s offering (Hebrews 10:10, 14, 18). Whatever “memorial” intends, the New Testament remembrance is the Lord’s Supper (Luke 22:19–20; 1 Corinthians 11:23–26), not renewed animal blood. 3. **Historical scope.** Dispensationalism as a complete system was articulated in the nineteenth century (esp. J. N. Darby and the Plymouth Brethren); Covenant Theology’s systematization is seventeenth-century, though its principles appear earlier. For a mainstream summary of Darby/dispensational origins, see Encyclopaedia Britannica’s overview of Christian fundamentalism (noting Darby’s mid-19th-century teaching). ([Encyclopedia Britannica][1]) 4. **Progressive Dispensationalism & “complementary hermeneutics.”** For representative PD sources, see Craig A. Blaising & Darrell L. Bock (eds.), *Dispensationalism, Israel and the Church* (Zondervan, 1992). A public catalog view is available. This is preferable to popular-level summaries. ([Bookey][2]) 5. **Amillennial “mainstream” note.** On Augustine’s shaping influence (esp. *City of God*, Book 20) and the view’s long reception in the West, see Affinity’s scholarly overview; for a primary-text access point to *City of God*, see the public-domain translation (Vol. II contains Book 20). ([Bible Odyssey][3]) 6. **Revelation 3:10 and *tēreō ek*.** Pre-trib readings include Richard Mayhue (TMS) and Thomas Ice (“Kept from the Hour”). For a standard lexical/translation witness that often takes the phrase as “keep from” in the sense of protection, see the NET Bible notes on Revelation 3:10 (compare the same construction in John 17:15). Balance both sides in presentation. 7. **1 Thessalonians 5:9 in context.** Note the “Day of the Lord” frame in vv. 1–11 emphasizing vigilance and final salvation rather than a timetable for a two-stage return (accessible KJV text). 8. **The “restrainer” (2 Thessalonians 2).** Serious proposals vary (Holy Spirit, angelic agent—often Michael, civic authority, preached word, etc.). For an academic treatment arguing for Michael, see the Cambridge University Press chapter cited here; consider dropping the general Wikipedia link in favor of this single scholarly citation. 9. **Daniel 9 resources.** For a Reformed “covenant” reading, see Meredith G. Kline’s “The Covenant of the Seventieth Week.” For multi-view comparisons, see Park Street’s overview and City Reformed’s four-views chart. For a Dispensational defense of the “gap,” see the Council on Dispensational Hermeneutics paper. 10. **Westminster anchor for covenant language.** When you summarize “one covenant of grace, differently administered,” it helps to footnote WCF 7.5–7.6 directly (OPC text). ([Orthodox Presbyterian Church][4]) --- [1]: https://tms.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/tmsj6d.pdf "THE HERMENEUTICS OF PROGRESSIVE DISPENSATIONALISM1" [2]: https://www.galaxie.com/article/tmsj06-1-05/print "MSJ 6:1 (Spr 95) p. 79 The Hermeneutics of Progressive Dispensationalism" [3]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_dispensationalism "Progressive dispensationalism - Wikipedia" [4]: https://www.affinity.org.uk/foundations/issue-65/issue-65-article-4-augustine-on-revelation-20-a-root-of-amillennialism/ "Augustine on Revelation 20: A Root of Amillennialism - Affinity" [5]: https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/amillennialism-millennium-today/ "Amillennialism: Millennium Today - Christian History Magazine" [6]: https://harvestprophecyhq.com/does-revelation-310-point-to-the-rapture/ "Does Revelation 3:10 Point to the Rapture? | Hindson & Hitchcock" [7]: https://www.pre-trib.org/pretribfiles/pdfs/Ice-KeptFromTheHour.pdf "KEPT FROM THE HOUR - Pre-Trib" [8]: https://www.bibliaplus.org/en/commentaries/236/cambridge-greek-testament-for-schools-and-colleges-commentary/john/17/15 "John 17:15 - Cambridge Greek Testament Commentary - Bíblia Plus" [9]: https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Thessalonians+5%3A1-9&version=KJV&utm_source=chatgpt.com "Bible Gateway passage: 1 Thessalonians 5:1-9 - King James Version" [10]: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/from-hope-to-despair-in-thessalonica/michael-the-restrainer-removed-2-thess-267/F3950A5D4039A8449439BED685FB9F1F "Michael, the restrainer removed (2 Thess. 2:6–7)" [11]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katechon "Katechon - Wikipedia" [12]: https://meredithkline.com/klines-works/articles-and-essays/the-covenant-of-the-seventieth-week/ "The Covenant of the Seventieth Week - Meredith G. Kline Resource Site" [13]: https://dispensationalcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/16_fazio_grammatical-historical-interpretation-and-the-gap-in-daniel-9.pdf "Does Following a Normal Grammatical-Historical Interpretive Methodology ..." [14]: https://www.parkstreet.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/70weeks_danielprophecy.pdf "The Seventy “Weeks” Prophecy of Daniel 9: A ... - Park Street" [15]: https://www.cityreformed.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/views_of_the_70_weeks_of_daniel.pdf "Four Interpretations of the “70 weeks” in Daniel 9:24-27" [16]: https://www.gotquestions.org/progressive-dispensationalism.html "What is Progressive Dispensationalism? - GotQuestions.org" [17]: https://tms.edu/educational-resources/journal/archive/why-a-pretribulational-rapture/ "Why a Pretribulational Rapture? - The Master's Seminary"